The three models of exchange rate determination

The three models of conversion standard assurance Dynamic This paper presents three models of conversion scale assurance. Each models depend on the balance of business sectors in the universal economy. The harmony of merchandise showcase decide swapping scale as per buying influence equality; the balance of currency advertise decide conversion standard as per financial model; the balance of benefit markets decide swapping scale as indicated by portfolio model. Presentation It is in light of a legitimate concern for an assortment of gatherings to comprehend the determinants of trade rates. For financial experts, it is for their scholarly and scholastic interest to reveal the monetary system deciding trade rates. Policymakers might want to comprehend the effects and results of trade rates to the arrangements and the other way around. Account administrators might want dissect the essential elements deciding trade rates and join these elements in their money related or venture dynamic. Theorists in remote trade market might want to know the heading of swapping scale development aforehand to make benefit. In the accompanying, we clarify three models of swapping scale assurance, to be specific, the buying power parity(PPP), the fiscal model and the portfolio balance hypothesis. Buying Power Parity The hypothetical supposition of Purchasing Power Parity begins from the Law of One Price. The Law of One Price in open economy expresses that, if the market is serious, no exchange cost and no boundaries of exchange, at that point indistinguishable items in various nations ought to be sold at similar costs, balanced by conversion scale, for example under a similar cash group. Something else, there is exchange opportunity. In documentation, pi =spi* (1) for pi = cost of good I at home nation, pi*= cost of good I at outside nation, s = conversion scale For instance, the value an ounce of gold cited at London in GBP ought to be equivalent to an ounce of gold cited at New York in USD times conversion scale of GBP/USD. Next, we think about a model with two nations. Them two have the gliding swapping scale systems and Law of One Price holds for all merchandise in the two areas. At that point, the general value level of home nation is ought to be equivalent to the general value level of remote nation, balanced by conversion standard. In documentation, P=sP* (2) for P= general value level at home nation, P*= general value level at remote nation P and P*, the general value level is the weighted normal of all costs of products. So if (1) holds for all merchandise, (2) will holds. (2) is the thing that we called the total Purchasing Power Parity (supreme PPP): the general value level of each nation ought to be the equivalent whenever changed in accordance with a similar money. At the end of the day, the conversion scale ought to be dictated by the relative value level of two nations. On the off chance that you can utilize $1 of home money to purchase a bin of merchandise at home nation, at that point the $1 changed over to outside cash ought to have the option to purchase a similar crate of items in remote nation, for example they have a similar buying power. We can decipher that PPP is a since quite a while ago run harmony level of conversion scale that there is fundemental power of interest and flexibly in merchandise market to hold it. For instance, accept that the residential value level is higher than the outside value level under a similar cash measure, for example P > sP*. In the event that merchandise are indistinguishable and there is exchange cost and obstructions of exchange, at that point buyers from local nation won't accepting neighborhood items. They will utilize their residential cash to trade to remote money to purchase outside items, which is less expensive. The power of gracefully and request of money will drives down swapping scale to deteriorate. Thus, deterioration of swapping scale will bring down the cost of household products(under a similar cash measure) and afterward the PPP harmony, P = sP* is held. However the supreme PPP to be excessively exacting, market analysts thinks about a more vulnerable structure, called the relative PPP. It expresses that rate changes in value levels of two nations decide the rate change in swapping scale. In documentation, ΆP/P = Þ†s/s +ΆP*/P* (3) The relative PPP is a more fragile type of supreme PPP in such a case that total PPP remains constant, the relative PPP remains constant likewise however not the other way around. Also, change in value level is to be sure the expansion rate. The relative PPP infers that conversion scale ought to be adjustedãžâ€ e/e to the contrast between two nations expansion rates. For instance, a nation with hyperinflation should experience generous deterioration in its cash. Observational Support The Purchasing Power Parity expresses that relative value level is a central determinant of conversion standard. An experimental test might want to see whether there is such a relationship in chronicled information. The PPP speculation has be gigantically and broadly tried experimentally by business analysts. The broad tests by business analysts discovered next to no exact help to PPP. Conversion scale and the relative value level are inconsequential in short run and medium run. Over the long haul, results found that conversion standard would meet to the hypothetical balance an incentive from PPP, yet at a moderate rate. At the main glace, PPP is by all accounts a too severe theory that its supposition that is probably not going to hold. In actuality, there is exchange cost and boundaries of exchange. The general value levels in reality incorporate non-tradable products and various nations have various parts in their general value level. These deviations of the hypothetical PPP will cause the residential value level and remote value level not merges, however hold at some veered off level. Writing Review Official (1982) contains a point by point outline on the hypothetical and exact takes a shot at PPP at beginning phase. Rogoff (1996) gives a more update review on PPP and their observational tests. Taylor (2004) utilizes progressively complete information and all the more remarkable econometric tests, as they portray, hold likewise result as past researchers. Money related model As conversion scale is the general cost of two monetary standards, it is sensible to consider the gracefully and request of cash be a significant determinant of trade rates. Presentation of cash flexibly and cash request, two essential macroeconomic factors, into our models The financial methodology lays on the amount hypothesis of cash in macroeconomics. Right off the bat, Money flexibly (Ms) is an amount controlled by the national bank. In the amount hypothesis, cash is with the end goal of vehicle of trade. Cash request of an economy is straightforwardly corresponding to the general value level and furthermore the amount of genuine yield. For instance, on the off chance that the general value level is multiplied, at that point the economy would require twofold measure of cash for their exchanges. A similar thought holds for amount of genuine yield. At that point, Md = kPy (4) Where Md is cash request, P is the value level, y is the genuine yield and k is the speed of cash. In balance, Money gracefully should be equivalent cash request, thus: Ms = kPy (5) By improving, we have P= Ms/ky (6) By this structure, we can decipher that given a degree of genuine yield of the economy and a given degree of cash flexibly dictated by the national bank, the value level of the economy will be acclimated to Ms/ky. Let * indicates the outside cash factors. We accept the amount hypothesis of cash maintains remote nation too. We have Ms*= k*P*y* (7) The second significant supposition of the money related methodology is that PPP remains constant. The swapping scale consistently accomplishes its PPP balance level, as in (2). In the fiscal methodology, we have three connections of factors now: the amount cash of home nation, amount cash of remote nation, and PPP. Consolidating there three connections and modifying the three conditions, we have: Ms/ky = S Ms*/k*y* (8) The amount hypothesis of cash and PPP are two structure squares of the financial methodology. The PPP reveals to us that at the since a long time ago run harmony, the swapping scale ought to be equivalent to the proportion of home and outside value level. The amount hypothesis of cash marcoeconomics portrays that value level of a nation is identified with cash flexibly of national bank and genuine yield of the economy. Joining them, the fiscal methodology inferred that trade is controlled by residential and outside cash flexibly (Ms Ms*), local and remote genuine yield (y y*), and local and outside speed of money(k k*). A significant ramifications of the financial methodology is that national banks cash gracefully strategy would have essential effect on conversion standard. Start with the residential national bank out of nowhere increment the cash flexibly by a generous sum, with all other household and outside factors keep unaltered. The amount hypothesis of cash suggests that the ascent of cash gracefully without increment in genuine yield will drives up the household value level, which implies swelling too. The expansion in residential value level will initiate local individuals to purchase increasingly remote items and cause the swapping scale to deteriorate. This is the equivalent equilibrating instrument portrayed in PPP. We may consider the extent of devaluation of cash by increment of local cash gracefully. As indicated by condition (x), swapping scale, s, is straightforwardly relative to Ms. So in the fiscal methodology, a given rate increment in cash gracefully will prompts a similar level of deterioration of money. A characteristic outcome of the above investigation is to check whether outside cash flexibly would prompts what kind difference in conversion standard. From condition (x), we can see that remote cash flexibly Ms* comes into deciding the swapping scale. In the event that the outside national bank increment cash flexibly, the remote money would devalue as by our past examination. At that point, thus, the household money would acknowledge moderately. Then again, we may think about the impact of an expansion in genuine yield on conversion standard in the fiscal methodology. Given a fixed degree of cash flexibly, genuine yield increment will prompts bringing down p

Green energy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Efficient power vitality - Essay Example Be that as it may, the continuous discussions have prompted the ascent of individuals against environmentally friendly power vitality. Pundits who guarantee that environmentally friendly power vitality must be in fact accomplished as opposed to being accomplished, in actuality. Environmentally friendly power vitality can be collected from characteristic sources, for example, the sun, wind and tsunamis in oceans and seas. Researcher has demonstrated the utilization of efficient power vitality actually conceivable. In any case, by what means will the open take the new innovation on environmentally friendly power vitality? That question has caused blended responses in vitality discusses universally. Not all individuals in the general public may acknowledge environmentally friendly power vitality. The makers may feel free to deliver green taxis and vehicles yet who will get them? A great many people incline toward purchasing vehicles that they have been utilized to as opposed to those ut ilizing environmentally friendly power vitality, for example, power. At times, since they have not experienced enormous tests, they don't fill in with respect to the set norms and conditions. For instance, one may buy a green vehicle to help in illuminating the an Earth-wide temperature boost change yet he/she makes a little division of the entire populace all around. These thoughts are for the most part produced in created nations and acquainted with business sectors in similar nations. Be that as it may, in the second and underdeveloped nations, the issue of contamination is as yet a hazard. Ventures and creation firms that produce noxious gases into the air prompting a worldwide temperature alteration may not make their courses in created nations yet in the underdeveloped nations. Legitimate and financial structures in these nations are not steady like those found in the created nations. This implies with all the thoughts, there are no enough usage designs that reinforcement innovation. For instance, because of wrong initiative styles in immature nations, processing plants and enterprises may keep dirtying nature. This on occasion occur within the sight of exacting notice and fines however because of defilement they keep creating. This implies the utilization of environmentally friendly power vitality is sensibly outlandish. There is an

The Impact of E Commerce on Small Business Essays - E-commerce

The Impact of E Commerce on Small Business Effect of E-Commerce on Small Firms have factor that has affected the procedures of selection and utilization of web based business in both little and medium undertakings and ventures. Little scopes firms that have embraced and have utilized web based business have considered not just the innovative part and hierarchical parts of execution yet in addition the solid client's o the sites with their own aptitudes, demeanor towards work, energy and dread of innovation. While on the opposite side of the story, the dominant part number of shoppers need to pace with and viably utilize the administrations offered through web by endeavors. Therefore to do a fruitful relationship and exchanges among purchasers and firms, they need to trade cash and items as well as data and shared trust. Web based business has been just characterized as an utilization of electronic scope of systems to rearrange, resolve, improve and pace up the different stages and procedures of efficient purchasing and selling and conveyance of merchandise and ventures. Web based business' prime driver is Internet which presents a various leveled structure. The utilization of sites for little scopes undertakings can make a significant effect and worldwide nearness when contrasted with different Medias. The web are characterized with no geological limits or national limits but instead by the inclusion of PC systems which offers augmented access to various markets for little scopes and small scale endeavors. Little scope ventures discover progressively serious markets and extreme weights with their constrained assets and labor and predominantly of more fragile market power. Because of this SME'S needed to experience strain to co work more into systems to spread data, create expenses and dangers. Little scope businesses are among the last ones to profit by the new innovation and are cheerfully amped up for the augmented open doors expanded through web and E-trade. Web Spending incorporates capital and activity brought about costs to assemble and bolster new frameworks of online. Little undertakings offer both to organizations and buyers however a greater part share is been offered to customers than organizations. Web offers an entrance to wide scope of products and ventures that little scope businesses are keen on and help them in their serious field. It incorporates instruments that little firms can use to upgrade and prosper their organizations, arrive at new clients and amplify client connections. The rudiments absolute necessities in web use of SME'S ought to be email, particular industry/proficient data and item data. Email is to contact the equivalent for urther relationship and to determine any inquiry. Proficient data ought to be shown as to hang out in the serious market and exhibit the generosity of the venture and item data does makes an effect of the advantages it offers contrasted with different items and administrations. The last boondocks is to arrive at the clients through the media made by Ecommerce. They are as per the following: Creating a site - The fundamental state is the production of a site. The site creation is a monotonous procedure as it includes of reasoning procedure and working up a site, its substance, planning, safety efforts, all take in a great deal of designing. When the site is made, we are prepared to work together. Pennant trade/displaying commercials on different sites - Once the site creation part is finished, the attention goes ahead the promoting part which makes it to broadcast the site on different sites and social destinations for instance, google advertisements, facebook advertisements, and so forth. These are valuable as they have a broad effect on state and national just as worldwide level. They are viable to such an extent that they can uncover clients from any edge of the earth, given that innovation is accessible. The board instruments for sites - After the culmination of the site, the administration apparatuses assume in position, for example, that of the server, security and antivirus measures and some more. These are basic piece of the apparatuses and parts of the site the board. Guests tallying - There is a space on the site which when visited by an individual, shows his visit number and the complete number of individuals who have visited. This educates us the occasions the site has been visited and effective of the

Fake Products in Online Shopping †Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Portray about the Fake Products In Online Shopping? Answer: Presentation To counterfeit something intends to fake or copy something. Counterfeit items are copies of the first item. This is done as such as to exploit the genuine items unrivaled worth. The phony items additionally have a copy organization logos and brands. The copy or phony items can be anything from toys, dress shoes to pharmaceuticals and programming. Of as of late, counterfeit items have tainted the online market like infections. It is discovered that individuals visiting destinations offering unlawful items are around 7 million (Wall, 2000). Counterfeit items are being sold progressively in the online market. These are either by virtual shops which looks great or by the web based life destinations which contains promotions of markdown evaluated items. The universal enemy of falsifying alliance has revealed that a large portion of the phony items are from Asia, for the most part China. Eastern Europe is likewise another wellspring of the phony items. The nations with the less expensive w ork power have little steadfastness for the items. The phony items mislead the clients into believing that they are purchasing the first item. The phony items are regularly enticing since they cost significantly less than the first cost. Exchanging Standards web based business master Paul Miloseski-Reid cautioned: Consumers are behaving recklessly buying electrical items from obscure merchants with an end goal to sack a deal. Proposal: Three Problems Undertaken The shopper products that are being faked are ascending because of globalization. As the organizations attempts to fabricate more, by utilizing less expensive works, the issue of forging is rising. The issue with the phony item is that they can at times be risky and dangerous. Regularly the phony items can harm the notoriety of the genuine makers (Ong, 2013). The third issues with these phony items are that, the more individuals are utilizing and purchasing these items its remunerating the wrongdoings that are going on in the online market. Arrangements Proposed To The Above Problems The issues of forging or faking items can be fathomed by looking for approved retailers in the online market. The most significant way is examining the marks the substance and the bundling. The merchandise must be looked into appropriately in the makers website before getting it from the online entrances. Counterfeit items are handily recognized by observing whether they are modest or costly. Too much modest items are for the most part counterfeit in nature. We should shop at retailers who are presumed and approved in the market (Action Fraud, 2015). The clients should see that the VAT and deals charge is paid while buying and an approved number ought to be created. The laws managing the forging must be made more grounded. Issue 1: The issue with the phony item is that they can some of the time be risky and hazardous. Counterfeit item as we have talked about before are commonly less expensive than the first items. This is because of the way that they are made of less expensive assets and materials. Toxic substance in the garments of kids has been found. The examination found that the item had high substance of formaldehyde. The level was multiple times more than the wellbeing levels. Such issues are regular with less expensive items which a portion of the online retailer sells. Indeed, even a few organizations are selling counterfeit makeup and make-ups which contain hazardous degrees of arsenic and lead. The phony form of brands like MAC just as Benefit contains lead which is multiple times more than the legitimate level. The expense of MAC lipstick on its official site is 15.50 yet it was accessible on a site at simply 2.05. The individuals have no chance to get of discovering whether an item is genuine. In any case, it is to be noticed that the items which are incredibly modest ought not be pur chased from on the web. There are different physical retail locations that offer different items, which the clients can examine appropriately while purchasing. The retailers give participation cards and considerably offer immense limits to their normal clients. Individuals ought to besides purchase from the approved site of the maker to maintain a strategic distance from fake items. Issue 2: Often the phony items can harm the notoriety and the generosity of the authentic makers. The appearances of the phony items are so near the first items that they difficult to recognize. As it happened that an Indian government official arranged a couple of Nike Air Max shoes from the online shop Snapdeal at a cost of Rs.9,445. At the point when the great was conveyed it was discovered that they were knockoffs. The shoes were from neighborhood merchant and rather than nikebetterworld.com, it was printed as nikebetterwold.com. the misstep or fabrication was little to recognize. Regularly these issues make the clients free expectations from the internet shopping locales (Buswell, 2013). Certain organizations know about these issues, so they attempt to make strides all alone. Like for instance, the site FitFlop, doesn't permit its retailers to sell the footwear on eBay. Along these lines in the event that eBay sells FitFlop shoes, at that point it must be comprehended that the item is a fake. Violating the fake law may bring about an offense under the Copyright Act, Trademar k Act, Design and Patents Act and Consumer Protection Act. An irregularity measure of cash is fined or the blamed is exposed to a punishment for detainment, which can reach out as long as a half year. To secure their picture, the organization Amazon has likewise made a few strides (Amazon.co.uk, 2015). They have certain strategies like for instance, they will never request data, for example, the ledger subtleties or pin number by an email. The clients must know about these little subtleties for which the organizations must teach the clients. Issue 3: The third issues with these phony items are that, the more individuals are utilizing and purchasing these items its remunerating the wrongdoings on the loose. The issue with many phony items is that spotting them is getting more diligently. An ever increasing number of individuals are purchasing these phony items as they will in general be less expensive than the first item. This prompts a difficult which is criminal in nature as attempting to pick up monetarily without the assent of the proprietor is culpable. Additionally while getting to specific sites the client likewise drives him to threat as their own subtleties get uncovered and may get influenced by infections. Numerous fraudsters may even sell counterfeit merchandise in order to finance other sorted out wrongdoing. The organizations should attempt to stop these activities by creating 3D images which the faking organization won't have the option to copy (Ong, 2013). The individuals who abuse these guidelines ought to be met with lawful activities right away. CSA Internationals started a program which can recognize, rebuff and uncover the individuals who utilize unapproved trademar ks. End To close we can say that the phony items are regularly exceptionally enticing since they cost substantially less than the first cost. The issue with the phony item is that they can some of the time be risky and hazardous. the phony items have more often than not they have prompted wounds and medical issues. Frequently the phony items can harm the notoriety of the real producers. Individuals couldn't comprehend the contrast between a genuine and phony item. Frequently individuals wind up purchasing an off-base item which in the end makes a negative effect on the brains of the clients. This can prompt lose of clients and furthermore harms the generosity of the organization. The third issues with these phony items are that, the more individuals are utilizing and purchasing these items its remunerating the wrongdoings that are going on in the online market. With these cash which they infer because of imitation, the fraudsters are participating in other crimes. To stop these clients must know about it, at that point they should buy from confirm sites. The guidelines and guidelines directing these exchanges must be made severe (Action Fraud, 2015). Indeed, even the organizations must make reference to their arrangements on the sites which will make the clients mindful of their degree and constraints. With every one of these activities expressed, on the off chance that some of them is applied, at that point the phony items on the web based shopping will fairly lessen. However, one thing is of concern is the clients wish to have an item at less expensive rate won't diminish as it were. This can prompt forging the items which will endure the issue. References Activity Fraud,. (2015).Online shopping misrepresentation. Recovered 14 February 2015, from https://www.actionfraud.police.uk/misrepresentation az-web based shopping-extortion Amazon.co.uk,. (2015).Amazon.co.uk Help. Recovered 14 February 2015, from https://www.amazon.co.uk/gp/help/client/display.html?nodeId=15340571 Buswell, F. (2013).How to spot phony and fake items online.Which? Discussion. Recovered 14 February 2015, from https://conversation.which.co.uk/purchaser rights/purchase counterfeit items fake merchandise on the web/ Ong, T. (2013).Product notoriety control. Divider, M. (2000).Shopping on the web. London: HarperCollins.

Free Essays on Jane Eyre And Love

towards the lady that in the long run makes her leave and Jane is left inclination triumphant. Be that as it may, during this denunciation Jane tells her auntie she really feels: â€Å"You think I have no sentiments, and that I can manage without the slightest bit of affection or consideration; however I can't live so: and you have no pity†(Brontà «, 3... Free Essays on Jane Eyre And Love Free Essays on Jane Eyre And Love Journey for Love In the event that others don’t love me, I would prefer to bite the dust than live-I can't stand to be lone and despised, Helen. Look here; to increase some genuine warmth from you, or Miss Temple, or some other whom I really love, I would eagerly submit to have the bone of my arm broken, or to let a bull hurl me, or to remain behind a kicking pony, and let it run its foot at my chest,- (Brontã «,58-59) These incredible words originate from the lips of multi year-old Jane Eyre. All through the novel Jane is looking for adoration: the should be cherished and love she can show to another person, of the other gender, whom she really cherishes. There is an issue lying in this straightforward arrangement however: Jane continues running from her potential odds of marriage. This obstruction that Jane shows towards marriage is foreshadowed about 33% of the route through the novel by a basic round of acts. The responses to two pretenses specifically are of sure intrigue: lady of the hour and bridewell. These two clueless answers give the peruser an unpretentious admonition of what is to come later on and how Jane’s life will continue unfurling. Jane’s scan for adoration is clear to the peruser from the primary page of the novel. We are first acquainted with Jane while she is a young lady living with her auntie, Mrs. Reed., at Gateshead Hall. While at Gateshead Jane is exposed to numerous things by her supposed family and love is certainly not one of them. She is beaten, separated from the remainder of the family unit, and in an entirely important scene secured a space for a night. Jane’s outrage is at long last discharged upon her auntie one night before Jane is sent to class. Jane releases a huge number of words towards the lady that in the end makes her leave and Jane is left inclination triumphant. Be that as it may, during this castigation Jane tells her auntie she really feels: â€Å"You think I have no emotions, and that I can manage without the slightest bit of affection or thoughtfulness; however I can't live so: and you have no pity†(Brontà «, 3...

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Ankle Sprain in Volleyball - Free Essay Example

Introduction Volleyball is a very safe sport, even at the highest levels of play 1. Indeed, when compared with other team sports played at Olympic Games in Athens 2 and London 3, volleyball shows the lowest injury incidence rate. Incidence of time-loss injuries in volleyball during match play is 3.8/1000 player hours (95% CI 3.0 to 4.5), with higher incidence among senior players and without differences among sexes Regardless of the sex or level of play, the most frequent injury in volleyball is ankle sprain 4-6, accounting for 25.9% of all acute time loss injuries in volleyball 1,7. Recent literature review 8 has shown that overall incidence of ankle injuries per 1000 player hours is 0.9 – 1.0, while match and training incidence is 1.7 and 0.8 injuries/1000 player hours, respectively. The authors 8 have also shown that match injuries are more frequent in men (2.6/1000 player hours) compared with women (0.7/1000 player hours). Most ankle sprains in volleyball occur in the conflict zone around the net following the landing from a vertical jump 4,9. In particular, half of all ankle sprains in volleyball are related to landing from blocking, and approximately one third to spiking 10,11. While epidemiology and injury mechanisms of ankle sprain in volleyball are well documented, there is a surprising lack of data regarding the potential risk factors. Data from prospective epidemiological studies have shown that the most commonly described and consistent risk factors for ankle sprains in volleyball are previous ankle injury 6,12 and body mass index 13,14. From functional point of view, decreased lower extremity neuromuscular control could be associated with increased risk for ankle sprain in volleyball 15. In an observational case-control study, Suda and Sacco 15 reported decreased peroneus longus activity before ground impact in volleyball players with chronic ankle instability. Furthermore, van den Doers et al. 16 have prospectively studied the association of landing control with the risk of ankle sprains in a group of volleyball, basketball, and korfball players, and concluded that poor landing stability in the forward and diagonal jump direction, and landing techni que with a greater ankle dorsiflexion moment are significant risk factors for ankle sprain. These findings are not surprising, given that many ankle sprains occur during landing from a jump. Finally, there is evidence that greater strength of the plantar flexors may predict an ankle sprain in volleyball players 17,18. This finding may be explained with the increased vertical jump height in players with greater plantar flexor strength and subsequent problems during landing following such jump 18. This could be especially evident in male volleyball players that predominantly use single leg landing strategy in comparison with female volleyball players 19. Indeed, previous studies have shown that plantar flexors strength contributes significantly to the vertical jump height 20. However, the contribution of knee extensors (quadriceps) strength to the vertical jump height is even higher 21. It is, therefore, possible that quadriceps strength, as well as jumping performance, are also associated with the risk of ankle injuries in volleyball. In addition, due to unilateral landing strategy, bilateral asymmetry in quadriceps strength could also be linked to risk of ankle sprains i n male volleyball. To our best knowledge, no study has attempted to investigate these conjectures. The purpose of this study was to prospectively establish the association between leg extensor strength and power qualities (i.e. isokinetic quadriceps strength, bilateral quadriceps strength asymmetry, and vertical jump performance), and the risk of ankle sprains in male volleyball players. Material and methods This was a prospective epidemiological study. Male volleyball players (N=99) from Slovenian national league were recruited to participate in the study. Prior to the start of the volleyball season, all the participants completed a preseason questionnaire (including data about the previous ankle injuries) and underwent anthropometric measurements, vertical jump testing, and a bilateral isokinetic evaluation of the quadriceps (Q) and hamstrings (H). During the subsequent season the players reported through a weekly questionnaire any acute time loss ankle sprain that has occurred. Male volleyball players from Slovenian 1st and 2nd national league volunteered to participate in the study. Main inclusion criteria were: age ? 18 years, regular participation in volleyball training at least 3 times per week, no major injuries upon entry into the study (injuries that would demand more than 4 weeks to return to play) and absence of all general contraindications for isokinetic strength testing of the knee. National Medical Ethics Committee (no. 63/07/12) has approved the study. We assessed body height and body mass using a stadiometer and scale (models 222 and 762, respectively; Seca Instruments Ltd, Hamburg, Germany) and skinfolds using Harpenden skinfold calipers (Holtain Ltd, Crosswell, Crymych, United Kingdom). From 7 skinfold measures, we calculated the body fat percentage using a Jackons Pollock formula 22. The same experienced examiner performed all testing. Players from the same volleyball club were tested on the same day. A day prior to testing no practice was allowed. Each testing session started with a warm up consisting of cycling for 6 minutes at moderate pace (100 W), followed by a 15 second stretch of Q and H. All participants were given a detailed explanation about the testing procedure, which was also demonstrated on an independent subject not participating in the study prior to testing. The height of the countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) was tested using an Optojump system (Microgate, Bolzano, Italy). Briefly, each athlete started from an upright standing position, making a preliminary downward movement by flexing at the knees and hips, then immediately extending knees and hips again to jump vertically up off the ground. Athletes performed 3 repetitions of CMJ and the best result in cm was recorded as the main outcome measure. The Optojump is a dual beam optical device that measures contact and flight times during a series of jumps (or single jump). Flight time (tair) was used to calculate height of the rise of the bodys centre of gravity (height = (g Ãâ€" tair2)/8). The validity and reproducibility of VJ testing using Optojump device proved to be excellent 23. Testing was performed using Techno-Gym REV 9000 isokinetic dynamometer (TehcnoGym, SpA, Via G. Perticari 20, 47035 Gambet-Tola, Forli, Italy). Players were tested in sitting position. The axis of rotation of knee joint was identified through the lateral femoral condyle and aligned with the motor axis using a laser beam preinstalled into the head of dynamometer. A range of motion (ROM) of 60 ° was set from 30 ° to 90 ° knee flexion (full extension considered 0 °). In our previous study we have already shown that testing in short ROM yields same results as testing in the full ROM, while being much more suitable for the participants 24. Testing was performed at 60 °/s for both concentric and eccentric contraction modes for Q and H. Gravity error torque was recorded for every athlete. Prior to testing each participant performed 2 submaximal and 1 maximal repetition at a given velocity and mode of contraction. Each participant performed 5 maximal contractions in the following or der: (1) five consecutive concentric Q and H contractions followed by a 60s pause, (2) five eccentric Q contractions followed by a 60s pause, (3) five eccentric H contractions. When testing of one side was completed, a 3 minutes break followed during which the machine setting was changed to accommodate for the opposite leg. The first tested leg was assigned randomly for each athlete. There was consistent verbal coaching, and visual feedback was allowed throughout the testing. Following the preseason testing, club representatives were designated to register training load and injuries. Injury was defined as ankle sprain that occurs during training or match play and results in the immediate termination of play and inability to participate in the next training session or match 25. Injuries and training exposures were reported on a weekly basis. In case of an injury team physician and/or physical therapist was contacted to obtain full injury report form. All calculations were performed using SPSS for Windows (version 17.0; SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL). Following the testing Q concentric (Qcon) and eccentric (Qecc) and H concentric (Hcon) and eccentric (Hecc) peak torque data (in Nm) were extracted and normalized for body weight and expressed as peak torque to body weight (in Nm/kg). We have also calculated the following strength ratios for each leg: conventional hamstring-quadriceps ratio (HQR; Hcon/Qcon), dynamic functional ratio (DFR; Hecc/Qcon), quadriceps (QEC) and hamstrings (HEC) eccentric to concentric ratio (Qecc/Qcon and Hecc/Hcon, respectively). It should be noted that, regardless of limb dominance, 90% of male volleyball players use right leg as take-off leg during attack jump 26. In that regard, bilateral strength asymmetry of Q and Q for each contraction type was calculated using the formula 1–(strength left side/strength right side) and expressed as a percentage. Bilateral strength asymmetry was defined as abnormal whe n the difference between the right and left Q and H strength exceeded 15% 27. All values were later on presented as mean  ± standard deviation and one-way analysis of variance was used to evaluate the differences among injured vs. uninjured players. Effect sizes (ES) were calculated for group differences in selected variables, and were interpreted as small (0.2), moderate (0.5), and large (0.8). Binary logistic regression was used to calculate odd ratio for ankle sprain using bilateral strength asymmetry, CMJ height, and previous ankle sprain as independent predictors. A significance level of .05 was used for all tests. Results Main characteristics of the players are presented in Table 1. During the season, we have registered 19 ankle sprains (15 first time ankle sprains and 4 recurrences) among 99 players during 46 629 player hours, 40 887 hours of training and 5 643 hours of match play. The total (overall) ankle sprain incidence was 0.41 ±0.24 per 1000 hours of play, 0.46 ±0.19 during training and 3.37 ±1.15 during play. In logistic regression model previous ankle injury was not a significant risk factors (?2(1)=0.063, p=0.802; odd ratio 0.86; 95% CI: 0.25-2.89). Table 1 Countermovement jump height did not significantly differ (F=1.06, p=0.306; ES = 0.27) between players with (40.8 cm ? 6.9 cm) and without ankle sprain (38.7 cm ? 8.5 cm). Furthermore, in logistic regression model countermovement jump height was not a significant risk factor for ankle sprain (odd ratio: 1.05; 95% CI: 0.94 – 1.19, p=0.393). Strength of Q and H and calculated strength ratios and bilateral strength asymmetry in players with and without ankle sprain are presented in Table 2. The players with ankle sprain had significantly higher right Q strength in comparison with healthy players (2.90 Nm/kg vs. 2.66 Nm/kg; F=4.95, p=0.028; ES = 0.63). Consequently, players with ankle sprain also had a lower HQR (0.56 vs. 0.62; F=5.12, p=0.026; ES = 0.63) and higher Q strength asymmetry in favour of the right side (6.63% vs. -4.36%; F=5.12, p=0.024; ES = 0.68) (Table 2). In logistic regression model, bilateral Q strength asymmetry was a significant risk factor for ankle sprain with odd ratio 0.956 (95% CI 0.919-0.995, p=0.026; B= -.045). Furthermore, when we introduced a proposed normative cut off value for Q strength of 2.7 Nm/kg that was calculated from a previous study28 that included only healthy volleyball players without a history of ankle sprain, we observed that 95% confidence interval of right Q strength in players who have sustained an ankle sprain was above that cut off value (Figure 1). Calculated sensitivity and specificity of such cut off to discriminate between players with and without future ankle sprain was 68% and 53%, respectively. Table 2 Figure 1 Discussion The major findings of the current study were: (i) previous ankle sprain was not a significant risk factor for future ankle sprain; (ii) albeit somewhat higher in the injured group (ES = 0.27), CMJ height was not a significant risk factor for ankle sprain; (iii) bilateral Q strength asymmetry was a significant risk factor for ankle sprain; and (iv) injured players had higher right concentric Q strength, higher bilateral Q strength asymmetry in favour of the right side, and lower HQR on the right leg (ES = 0.63-0.68). Contrary to our findings, several previous studies reported previous ankle sprain as a significant risk factor for future ankle sprain in volleyball (3, 34). Bahr Bahr (3) prospectively studied 272 male and female Norwegian volleyball players and reported previous ankle sprain as a significant risk factor for future ankle sprain. In another prospective study, Verhagen et al. (34) followed 486 male and female players from the second and third Dutch national volleyball divisions during the whole season and reported that 75% of all players with an ankle sprain reported a previous ankle sprain. This discrepancy in findings between the current study and previous research could be related to the fact that we only studied male volleyball players, while both previous studies included male and female players. Another possible explanation could be related to markedly lower overall incidence of ankle sprains in the current study (0.41/1000 h) compared with previous studies (1.0/1000 h) (3, 34) . This relatively low number of ankle sprains in the current study could result in low power for statistical analysis to identify risk factors, and represents the limitation of our study. Nevertheless, our study yielded some new important findings related to Q function and ankle sprain risk in male volleyball. First, we observed that bilateral asymmetry in concentric Q strength, albeit not abnormal (?15%) in the tested sample (see Table 2), was a significant risk factor for ankle sprain. We also observed significant group differences of moderate magnitude in bilateral concentric Q strength asymmetry in favor of the right side in the injured group. In particular, the injured group had on average 6.6% higher right concentric Q strength, while the uninjured group displayed 4.4% higher left concentric Q strength, respectively. As there were no group differences in H strength, injured group also had significantly lower HQR of moderate magnitude. In order to explain these findings, we have (re) analysed the nature of the attack jump in volleyball (Figure 2). The players are usually performing attack jump following a three-step approach: left foot (short step) – right foot (long step) – left foot joins the right foot – push off for vertical jump. The second step where they plant a right foot on the ground is the longest one. When right foot is planted, the right knee goes into semi-flexion, while Q is being eccentrically loaded. The left foot than follows and shortly after the contact of the left foot with the ground (third step) the push off phase of jump is initiated. Right Q loading seems therefore longer in comparison to the left side, and is essential for a concentric part of the CMJ where explosive concentric Q strength is needed to push off the ground 29. We hypothesize that this might explain our finding regarding the importance of right Q strength. It has been shown that Q concentric strength expl ains up to 56% of vertical jump height 20; hence we might expect players with stronger Q to jump significantly higher. Considering the fact that male volleyball players land on one leg more frequently than females 19, we may also understand that landing safely from a jump is highly demanding neuromuscular task that requires proper strength of the whole kinematic chain involved. The fact that eccentric Q function and CMJ height were not significant risk factor for ankle sprain in the current study contradicts our conjecture, but could be related to previously mentioned low power for statistical analysis to identify risk factors due to relatively low number of ankle sprains. Figure 2 The results of logistic regression suggest that decreasing the bilateral asymmetry in concentric Q strength for 1% could decrease the risk for ankle sprain (B= -.045) for 4% in male volleyball players. However, this simplistic strategy for prevention of ankle sprains in male volleyball could be misleading, given that the observed bilateral asymmetry in concentric Q strength was rather small (see previous paragraphs). Also, it does not take into account strength of H muscles. Indeed, in our previous study, we have shown that international-level volleyball players (playing at CEV Champion League and/or national team) had significantly stronger right concentric and eccentric H strength 28. It seems likely that high-level volleyball players are compensating higher right Q strength through increased reciprocal strength of H (antagonists) that may help amortization during landing. Hence, future intervention studies are needed to define the optimal strategy for prevention of ankle sprains i n male volleyball, taking into account function of Q and H muscles. Present results are also in concordance with results of previous study 18 where it was shown that higher plantar flexors strength is a significant predictor of ankle sprain. Furthermore, Lian and co-workers (REF) also observed that volleyball players with patellar tendinopathy had significantly higher jumping performance (take-off force in particular) compared with players without history of patellar tendinopathy. Overall, these results suggest that whole kinematic chain that contributes to the vertical jump height (performance) could also be important in the terms of lower-extremity injury risk (health). We have to acknowledge limitations of the current study. Aside from low incidence of ankle sprains leading to low statistical power, limitation of our study is related to the fact that we only analysed male volleyball players. As vertical jump technique is different for males and females 30, we cannot generalize our findings to female population. Finally, we have not analysed other possible functional risk factors (e.g. balance ability, neuromuscular coordination) that could contribute to the ankle sprain risk. Future studies should address these limitations. Conclusion In male volleyball, players with excessive concentric strength of the right Q, which leads to low H-Q strength ratio, and high bilateral Q strength asymmetry in favour of right side, could be at increased risk of ankle sprains. Previous ankle sprain was not a significant risk factor for future ankle sprain, possibly due to relatively low number of ankle sprains in the current study. Although additional research is needed, our results suggest that volleyball coaches and specialists should put emphasis on eliminating players’ right Q dominance via contralateral Q strengthening, and well as ipsilateral concentric and eccentric H strengthening. Practical application Quadriceps strength asymmetry seems important risk factor for ankle sprain in volleyball Decreasing quadriceps asymmetry for 1% with unilateral strengthening will decrease risk for ankle sprain for 4%. Athletes will also benefit from concomitant concentric and eccentric hamstring strengthening. Acknowledgement This study was supported by Slovenian Research Agency through a project P5-0147.